De Laat and Lally (2003) argue that the nature of theory-informed tutoring and learning in networked environments is so complex that no single theoretical model can be utilised and that a multi-method approach is more appropriate. One such perspective to draw upon is Sociocultural Theory; rooted in the work of Wertsch (1991, 1998) and Vygotsky, the Soviet Psychologist who believed social and cognitive development work together; their work has since been expanded upon by many Researchers, for example, Engestrom (1987); Kuutti (1996) and Nardi (1996). Kublin et al (1998, p.287) succinctly state that “Vygotsky described learning as being embedded within social events and occurring as a child interacts with people, objects, and events in the environment”. According to Tharp and Gallimore (1988,pp.6-7) “This view [the sociocultural perspective] has profound implications for teaching, schooling, and education. A key feature of this emergent view of human development is that higher order functions develop out of social interaction. Vygotsky argues that a child’s development cannot be understood by a study of the individual. We must also examine the external social world in which that individual life has developed…Through participation in activities that require cognitive and communicative functions, children are drawn into the use of these functions in ways that nurture and ‘scaffold’ them”.
Vygotsky (1978) emphasises the significant role that language plays in the development of abstract thought. He recognises the importance of the labelling process in the formulation of concepts. He believed that language was social in origin because it arose in social interaction. Vygotsky’s (1978) theory on ‘the zone of proximal development’ is described as the gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with the help of another child or adult. Vygotsky (1978) argues that the capacity to learn through instruction was a fundamental feature of human intelligence. He argues learning is about the existing understanding coupled with an ability to learn with help. Vygotsky (1978) emphasises the importance of communities in the social context for learning. He believes in a social constructivist view of imagination and play being important to development and learning; and recognises the importance of social components of learning.
Developing an understanding of how online learning can be utilised for children unable to attend school for a certain period of time; requires a theory or framework to help understand how the different stakeholders involved might form a community of practice and work together to develop the use of social networking tools. Wenger’s (1998) model is a social theory of learning about learning through a social process and sharing a common language and means of communication.
Lave and Wenger (2002) discuss an aspect of learning theory – Communities of Practice – in other words, groups of professionals who learn together, thus highlighting the social aspect of learning. Their theory focuses on learning processes within ‘Communities of Practice’. They argue it is not so clear cut that learning only takes place in formal settings; instead the acquisition of knowledge involves informal and formal learning processes and encompasses engagement in a community. Lave and Wenger talk of communities of interest within professions, trades etc, such as artists, tailors, butchers and midwives. Initially the Communities of Practice are face-to-face and are often theme-based. Members are practitioners and learn from one another. Lave and Wenger (2002) define a community of practice as one within which a set of individuals are united both in action and in the meaning that the action has, both for themselves and for the larger collective. It is this commonality that motivates them to work together because learning has a real context. Faris (2006) also discusses Communities of Practice as one of a number of groups, that are self-managing their own learning.
Wenger (1998) argues Communities of Practice are a tool for analysis because of the concept of practice which is central to his theory and provides meaning to the communities and what they do. Wenger (1998) discusses how Communities of Practice involve participation and reification. Participation shapes experience through active engagement and reification produces objects from that experience. Reification creates meaning and organises the community, however, if the balance between reification and participation favours reification it can lead to the community not experiencing enough shared practice and interaction and not enough experience to develop a co-ordinated practice.
Wenger (1998) explains that practice is a source of coherence through three dimensions – mutual engagement; joint enterprise and shared repertoire, which includes tools, ways of doing things, words and symbols that become part of the community. Communities of Practice have boundaries that may link with other communities, for example, through the connection of boundary objects , such as documents and terms used and also through brokering which is the connections made by people who introduce elements of one practice into another.
Applying Wenger’s Communities of Practice theory (1998) to online education leads to interesting questions which can shape the future of its use in education, for example,
Does the use of online learning at key stage 3 consist of one community of practice or a several practices?
Does the use of online learning at key stage 3 lead to the production of artefacts and participation within the community?
What is the balance between reification and participation in the use of online learning at key stage 3?
Are stakeholders at Key Stage 3 mutually engaged in developing enterprises and sharing repertories through negotiated meaning?
Are connections being created through boundary practices, objects and brokers?
Using Wenger’s model of Communities of Practice in researching how online learning is used at Key Stage 3 will lead to exploring the role that communities can have in developing the tools and the research will examine connections between the different stakeholder communities. The research would examine if and how brokers can champion the cause of online learning in secondary schools because changes are often difficult and complex.
Communities of Practice is similar to Activity Theory because both focus on rules and tools on the development of practice. Activity theory has its roots in psychology and is a framework and set of rules for describing activity that provides individual and social perspectives on practice. Activity and its context are the unit of analysis and in its simplest form has three components – the subject (often the learner), the object, which is often what is acted upon; for example, a plan; objectives; common ideas or raw materials; and thirdly the tools, which are often concepts; symbols and physical objects or artefacts.
Engestrom (1987) developed Activity Theory beyond the simple concept of understanding the relationship between the subject and object to include three more factors – precepts, division of labour and community. Engestrom included social relationships; conventions and norms with the community and how the community is organised.
A key concept of Activity Theory is the transformation of an object into an outcome (Kuutti, 1996). Naardi (1996) discusses another key characteristic; which is that of motivation and consciousness – motivation to complete a task and transform the object into an outcome. Naardi (1996) believes consciousness is not a set of discrete disembodied cognitive acts but located in everyday life which is derived from our social environment. Naardi (1996) also argues that meditation is a key concept of Activity Theory and that meditators connect us to the world. The relationships between subject and object in Engetrom’s (1987) systemic model are meditated. Another characteristic of Activity Theory which Kuutti (1996) discusses is that activities are not static and under continuous development which take no regular pattern. Finally, Barab et al (2004) discuss the characteristic of contradiction and conflict which is seen in Activity Theory. Contradictions lead to the development of a change in the activity system; a new object or practice.
Applying activity theory to online learning at key stage 3 gives rise to some interesting questions that have the potential to shape future research, for example:
Can novices in online learning eventually become experts when even the experts struggle?
Is online learning mediated by tools, rules and division of labour?
Is there a history of development in using online learning at Key Stage 3
for children unable to attend school and is that history influencing and shaping future development?
Activity Theory prompts us to examine the extent to which the social networking community has come up with a detailed set of rules of practice to help individuals make effective use of social networking tools in education. As previously discussed, a key concept of Activity Theory is history and development. Activities don’t remain static and continuously evolve and develop. As the use of social networking in education is researched, activity theorists can examine the history to learn from issues that occurred and can help understand the current situation. Examining the history can help develop future universal design and usability.
Applying Activity Theory to online learning allows the researcher to examine the potential breakages and weak links between the central components of the activity system, which is often mapped out in a diagram. Conflicts and contradictions can be examined, for example, between objects and tools; community and division of labour; rules and subject; community and rules; division of labour and objects. The theory prompts the Researcher to explore what is wrong with the rules and tools and to take into account the wider context of the community. The researcher can consider the socio-cultural responses to social networking and to explore the influence that tools have on individuals within the education activity system. The outcome of activity theory can lead to the development of a kind of code of conduct for social networking tools within communities and an agreed set of consistent rules and protocol and the development of roles. Activity Theory differs to Communities of Practice in this respect, because conflict and tension is not dealt with and the impact and influence of conflict is not examined in the theory of Communities of Practice.
There is a danger in accepting one theoretical position with regard to what is the best approach to the role of online learning at key stage 3. There are a lot of similarities between socio-cultural theories, such as Activity Theory and with Communities of Practice – they are all theories of practice with objectives and goals and lead the research to focus on connections. Activity Theory emphasises individual practice mediated by rules and Communities of Practice Theory emphasises how rules many influence community practice. Each theory is helpful in developing an understanding of the role of online learning in the lives and education of children at Key Stage Three and their experiences of learning interaction in face-to-face and online settings using survey research. Activity Theory focuses on connections between communities and individuals, whereas, Communities of Practice Theory explores the connections between communities and how brokers play a role in developing communities and facilitating linkages between communities. Despite the weakness in Communities of Practice, Wenger’s theory (1998) is still an important framework in directing research to look at participation and how the community can use social networking tools to develop practice. Activity theory prompts the researcher to consider the socio-cultural responses to the use of social networking tools in education and to research not only how the tools influence rules and how rules act as a mediator and practice; but also question what is wrong with the tools and rules. Activity Theory shapes the research to consider division of labour and how different roles and responsibilities for social networking are decided when used in education. Communities of Practice leads the research to focus on whether the use of social networking tools in education is located in several different communities that need to be joined in some way for a more successful community of practice